Declaratory Theory

â€Å"Declaratory theory is propounded on the belief that judges' decisions never make law, rather they only constitute evidence of what the law is. However, this view is no longer accepted. There are three reasons for the persistence of the declaratory theory. In the first place, it appealed in the separation of powers. Secondly, it concealed the fact that judge-made law is retrospective in its effect and finally, when the judges confronted with a new, unusual, or different point, they tend to present as if the answer is provided by the common law.One of the most widely-accepted principles of the English legal system is what is known as the ‘declaratory theory' of judicial decision-making. This principle states that when judges are required to make decisions, they do not create or change the law, they merely ‘declare' it. That is, a judge says what he or she finds the law to be; no ‘new' law is ever created by judges. New law comes from Parliament. For example, th e Criminal Justice Bill that is currently going through Parliament will make fairly radical changes to the criminal law.It will take away the blanket immunity that currently exists from being prosecuted twice for the same offence. No-one is suggesting that this Bill declares the law: the ancient ‘double-jeopardy' principle has existed for centuries. When the Bill is enacted, the law will simply change. This article attempts to show, first, that the declaratory theory itself is based on indefensible assumptions of fact. Second, it shows that the theory sometimes leads to bizarre conclusions, which can only be avoided by the most strained reasoning.Finally, it examines why the theory commands so much reverence, when most academics and many judges believe it to be fatally flawed. Why the declaratory theory is factually indefensible The classical exposition of the declaratory theory is that of Lord Esher in Willis v Baddeley (1892): There is, in fact, no such thing as judge-made l aw, for the judges do not make the law, though they frequently have to apply existing law to circumstances as to which it has not previously been authoritatively laid down that such law is applicable.That judges appear to create and change law is undeniable; cases like Donaghue v Stevenson, Hedley Byrne v Heller, and Wednesbury represent significant developments in the law. In Lord Esher's view, the judges in these cases would simply be applying existing principles to new fact situations. But where do these existing principles come from? Some of them, no doubt, come from previous case law. When a judge is called on to decide a case, most often a decision can be made by looking at previous cases whose facts are similar to those at issue, and reasoning from them.Very often there will be previous cases that are binding on a particular court, and these will dictate the outcome. But unless we are to accept an infinite regress of case law, back to the very dawn of time, there must be some point in the past at which an issue was first decided. The romantic view is that the earliest judicial decisions were made by the ‘wandering justices' of the 13th century, who travelled the land at the King's behest, applying and unifying the existing law of the land.The pragmatic view is that the English common law results from an attempt by the Norman French nobility to apply its standards of law in a conquered country, while giving an illusion of continuity. Whether the legal developments of the medieval period followed from a process of approving established legal custom, or from the imposition of a foreign jurisprudence, neither represent an answer to the question where the foundational principles come from. There are really only two possibilities: either they were, at some point, created by the judges, or they were based on existing ‘universal truths' that were self-evident to the judges.The declaratory theory repudiates the notion that the judges ‘made thin gs up', so the only alternative is that they were based on universal truths. The notion that law is based on fundamental, self-evident principles of ethics is often called ‘natural law' jurisprudence. To be fair, the idea of ‘natural law' has had a bit of a revival in the last fifty years or so, after being out of favour since the 18th century. The idea that the declaratory theory can be traced back to natural law therefore does not attract the same scepticism today as it would have in the 19th century.The problem with natural law is that even if one is prepared to accept its basic tenet, that there indeed are self-evident principles of ethics, it is by no means obvious that every situation that requires a judicial decision is one in which such fundamentals are at issue. Consider, for example, the well-known case of Entores v Miles Far East Corp (1955). This concerned the formation of a contract by telex machine, in the very early days of this technology.Previously most formal business transactions would have been carried out by post; the ‘postal rule' was – and still is – that if person A offers to contract with person B, then the contract is formed when B's letter of acceptance is posted to A. This is the case even if B's acceptance never even reaches A. When considering the use of telex, the court had to decide whether the same principle could be applied to telex as to post, that is, whether a telexed acceptance was effective on sending, or on receipt. The leading judgement in Entores was given by Denning LJ.In his judgement he does not refer to any existing case law, or any legal principle. Instead, he says that it is simply reasonable and obvious that a telex must be received to be effective. If the declarative theory is correct, then Denning's judgement cannot be creating law: it must be declaring what the law is. But since he does not refer to any existing law, it must, presumably, be derived from universal principles. No w, a proponent of natural law may believe it is self-evident that, for example, murder and rape are wrong.But it takes a real leap of faith to believe that there are principles of natural law at stake in deciding when a telexed contract is formed. The reality, of course, is that when Entores was heard, no-one really wanted to see the ‘postal rule' extended to a new technology. Denning's judgement is an entirely pragmatic one. It does not require any higher principles to be considered. In summary, the declaratory theory is predicated absolutely on acceptance of a natural law view of jurisprudence, not just for fundamental principles of ethics, but for everything.This, I suggest, is just too much to swallow. Why the declaratory theory produces bizarre results Law students generally know about the ‘retrospectivity of the declaratory theory'; but it doesn't seem to be well understood that this is not a doctrinal matter, or something that can be argued either way, it is an in evitable conclusion of the declaratory theory. If a judicial decision cannot create new law, then when the judge declares the law, as a matter of plain logic he is declaring what the law always was. In the Entores example discussed above, this does not create a problem.It established that the use of telex had certain legal consequences, but since telex was only just coming into use when this decision was made, the fact that Denning was declaring what the law was is of no consequence. It is purely a matter of academic discussion whether the ‘postal rule' would have applied to telex in, say, the 15th century. It is, surely, of not practical consequence. Perhaps the first occasion on which the full implications of the declaratory theory had to be confronted squarely by a court was in the case of Kleinwort Benson v Leicester CC.Here, the House of lords had to rule on what should have been, for a court of this standing, a routine matter. The question at issue was whether money was recoverable in a restitution action, if it was paid from one party to another in a mistaken understanding of law. It had always been the case that money paid under of a misunderstanding of fact was recoverable. It was widely believed that the inability to reclaim money paid under a mistake of law was unjust, and incompatible with other legal principles and other jurisdictions.Both parties to the case, and all five of the law lords, were in agreement on this point: it should be possible to recover money paid under a mistake of law. The disagreement was on whether the decision that it was recoverable should apply only to new cases, or to past cases. Kleinwort Benson, a bank, had already paid its money to the defendant local authority. It therefore argued that the decision should operate retrospectively, so it could reclaim its money. The Local Authority, on the other hand, argued that the decision should not have retrospective effect.The problem was that if the issue were decided in f avour of the claimant bank, it must have retrospective effect. This is a direct consequence of the declarative theory. After all, if the law at time T1 was X, and it is later changed at time T2 by judicial ‘declaration' to Y, then the effect of that declaration is to deem that the law at T1 was Y as well. Of course, no-one at time T1 knew this, and so a decision made on the basis that the law was X, not Y, was necessarily mistaken. You may be wondering why this would have such dramatic consequences.Well, a potentially large number of businesses could suddenly find that the they had grounds for litigation arising from things that happened in the distant past, and which they had no way of knowing at the time would be actionable. No-one would wish to see a barrage of ancient, poorly-remembered cases dragged up before the courts in the hope of gain. For technical reasons which I don't have space to explain here, the Limitations Act would not prevent this. So the Law Lords were fac ed with a problem.They could decide justly, in favour of the claimant bank, by ruling that it could recover its money, and accept the inevitable problems that the retrospectivity of its decision would bring. Or it could decide against the claimant, and avoid the problems, but at the expense of leaving in place an unjust and criticised rule of law. It was simply not open to the judges to change the unjust law, without the change being retrospective, unless they were prepared to openly attack the declarative theory. It is interesting to see how the various judges attempted to deal with this problem.It should be noted from the outset that all the Law Lords in Kleinwort Benson agreed that, in practice, judicial decisions do change the law, rather than simply declaring it. No-one suggested for a moment that the declaratory theory was actually true. For example, Lord Goff says: It is universally recognised that judicial development of the common law is inevitable. If it had never taken pl ace, the common law would be the same now as it was in the reign of King Henry II†¦ However, there was very little enthusiasm for making an official pronouncement to that effect.We will discuss possible reasons for this later. Lord Browne-Wilkinson proposed a judicial damage-limitation exercise. He suggested that although the declaratory theory should be upheld, it could be prevented from giving rise to actions arising out of past conduct. †¦ retrospection cannot falsify history: if at the date of each payment it was settled law†¦ [the claimants] were not labouring under any mistake of law at that date. The subsequent decision †¦ could not create a mistake where no mistake existed at the time.In other words, what he seems to be saying is that although the claimants did in fact err in law, they had not made a mistake of law, so they could not reclaim their payments. This is quite a neat trick, because it upholds the revered declaratory theory, while preventing it giving rise to an undesirable situation. However, it does rely on accepting that there are two different metas of ‘mistake of law'. One meta occurs when a person misunderstands the law that actually subsists at the time he applies it, and which continues to subsist.The other meta occurs when a person correctly understands the law at the time he made the decision, but his understanding was later made wrong by a judicial decision. Even if one accepts this arbitrary and unfounded distinction, it seems impossible to avoid the conclusion that it is unjust. If a person makes a mistake of law, and the law remains the same, then the mistaken person can reclaim any money paid as a result of that mistake. On the other hand, a person who later finds that he was mistaken as a result of judicial decision cannot reclaim anything.Yet the latter person is blameless: his decision has been ‘wronged' by later events beyond his control. The former person could at least (in theory) have disc overed what the law was. The effect of the Browne-Wilkinson solution is to leave the declaratory theory intact, at the expense of justice and common sense. Lord Goff showed, perhaps, the greatest reverence for the declaratory theory: I can see no good reason why your Lordships' House should take a step which, as I see it, is inconsistent with the declaratory theory of judicial decision as applied in our legal system†¦As a result, he was prepared to allow a person to recover money paid under a decision in law which was correct at the time, and later shown to be false. In his analysis, the claimant was labouring under a mistake of law, but simply did not know it. Lord Goff correctly analysed the effect of the retrospectivity of the declaratory theory, and allowed it to stand despite the odd results it engenders. Lord Hoffman recognised the problems that would follow from finding for the claimant, but decided that they were a price worth paying for doing justice in the particular case: This may suggest that your Lordships should leave the whole question†¦ o the legislature†¦ There is obviously a strong argument for doing so, but I do not think that it should prevail over the desirability of giving in this case what your Lordships consider to be a just and principled decision. Lord Hope decided along much the same lines as Lord Goff. Of the five Law Lords, Lord Lloyd was the only one to criticise the declarative theory: It follows that†¦ the House of lords is doing more than develop the law. It is changing the law, as common sense suggests†¦ If this view of what happens is inconsistent with the declaratory theory of the court's function, then it is time we said so.It always was a fairy tale. And: For myself, I would want to allow the appeal, if I could, [avoiding the effect of retrospectivity]. But as that is not to be, I consider the second best course is to leave the abolition of the mistake of law rule to Parliament. He seems to be sayi ng that a decision for the claimant, coupled with the effect of the declaratory theory, will produce results so bizarre and unpredictable that it ought not to be allowed. In other words, the price of doing justice in this case is too high.Legal retrospectivity is bad enough in the civil law, but in the criminal law it becomes a human rights issue. Article 7(1) of the European Convention on Human Rights specifically forbids criminal sanctions for an act that did not constitute a crime at the time it was committed. In other words, however heinous we might think an act is, it can't be punished unless the offender had a way to know it was illegal. Of course, ‘ignorance of the law is no defence', but the offender has to be able to know the law to be bound by it. Consider the famous House of lords case of R v R (1994).This concerned a man who raped his wife, and based his defence on the fact that for a man to rape his wife was not, in fact, illegal. It may be condemned, it may even be wicked, but it was not – at that time – illegal. If a man had approach a solicitor in 1990 and said ‘Look, I'm thinking of raping my wife, is that illegal? ‘ a competent solicitor may well have said: ‘Well, of course I wouldn't condone it, but the balance of authority is that it isn't actually illegal'. He could have cited authorities going back to the 16th century to back this up.At this time, there was increasing pressure on Parliament and the courts to overturn this unedifying principle of law, but when R was heard, no action had been taken. To cut a long story short, the House of lords decided that marital rape was illegal, reversing a 400-year tradition. Everyone, with the exception of the defendant, heaved a sigh of relief. Later that year, the decision was put on a statutory basis, which appeared to settle the matter once and for all. The fly in the ointment is our old friend retrospectivity. The decision in R was not that marital rape was i llegal, but that it had always been illegal.Again, the court had no power to decide otherwise. And this means that an octogenarian who raped his wife in the 1940's could now be prosecuted. You may feel that this is a just conclusion; you may feel that rapists should get their just deserts. However, the fact remains that we would be punishing a person for something which was not illegal at the time, and which he would have no way of knowing was ever going to be illegal. The social conditions of the time may not even have led our hypothetical defendant to think he was doing anything wrong.But he could still be prosecuted. This may sound far-fetched, but in fact within a year of the decision in R, cases were being heard in the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR). SW v United Kingdom (1995) concerned a man who was prosecuted in 1994 for a rape he had allegedly committed in 1990. If was far from obvious that marital rape was illegal in 1990. The ECHR upheld the criminal conviction, on the basis that when the rapes occurred, the defendants could have reasonably foreseen that the criminalisation of martial rape was likely.The problem with the decision in SW v UK is that it suggests that a person must govern his behaviour, not by what the law is, but by what he predicts it will be when any consequent prosecution is bought. So, not only is ignorance of the law no defence, but ignorance of the future development of the law is also no defence! None of the forgoing is intended to condone the practice of marital rape. Judicial retrospectivity presents the same kind of problem for any criminal offence, of any severity. Lord Diplock has suggested that the retrospectivity of judicial decisions discourages judges from correcting defects in the law.Judges have to be very conservative if they must predict not only the effect of their decisions on new cases, but the effect they would have had if made in the past. To get around this problem, the Supreme Court of the USA has adop ted the device of ‘prospective overruling'; this device allows the court to state that a decision that changes the law is not to have retrospective effect. The problem is that prospective overruling is simply incompatible with the declaratory theory. If the former comes in, the latter must go. However, as Prof.Zander says, the courts can accept that the declaratory, retrospective effect of its decisions is doctrinally ‘correct', while at the same time letting it be known that they will decide cases on the basis of the law as would have been understood when the events occurred, not when the case is heard. This is a fudge, but probably a workable fudge. Why is the declaratory theory so revered? In Albion's Fatal Tree (1975), Douglas Hay argues that the decline in formal religious observance in the 18th century left a power vacuum to be filled by the law.For law to command the respect of society in the way that the church had done, it was necessary that it be seen as someth ing above and beyond its practitioners: The punctilious attention to forms, the dispassionate and legalistic exchanges between counsel and the judge, argued that those administering the laws submitted to its rules†¦ In short, it's very inefficiency, its absurd formalism, was part of its strength as ideology. Such an ideology would be undermined, of course, if it were seen that law were nothing more than the creation of ordinary people.It was the job of the legal profession to form an elite, and thereby shield the ugly reality of lawmaking from public scrutiny. While this argument may have had validity in the 18th century, it is not at all easy to see that it stands up in the 21st century. To respect the law, we don't necessarily need to view it as having supernatural origins. Moreover, since the 18th century the development of the law has increasingly been effected by statute. No-one expects Parliament's legislative programme to be to be guided by anything more than the views o f society as expressed through the ballot box.Nevertheless, while most judges tacitly accept that their activities have the effect of lawmaking, relatively few have been prepared to criticise the declaratory theory in public. Lord Reid is usually credited with first describing the declaratory theory as a ‘fairy tale'; in a 1972 article ‘The judge as law-maker' in JSPTL he described the ‘Aladdin's cave' in which ‘those with a taste for fairy tales' expect the common law to be found. However, he was not the first influential judge to cast doubt on the declaratory theory. For example, Lord Radcliffe wrote in the Law Society Gazette in 1964 †¦ here was never a more sterile controversy than that upon the question whether a judge makes law. Of course he does. How can he help it? Such comments are, to say the least, unusual. Prof. Atiyah is probably the most outspoken critic of the modern judicial attitude to the declaratory theory. In Judges and Policy ([1980] ILR 346) he identified five reasons for its continued existence. First, it is to the advantage of the judge if he can, in a difficult case, deflect any criticism of his own decision onto ‘the law' as a higher principle.As Atiyah says, of course, this can be seen as a ‘shabby attempt to evade responsibility'. Nonetheless, the job of a judge is difficult enough, without having to deal with personal attacks on his decisions. Lord Devlin has suggested that judges will occasionally hint to claimants that they wish they could find otherwise, but are bound by ‘the law'. Second, it is generally accepted as a constitutional principle that it is the role of the legislature to make law, and the role of the judiciary to interpret it in specific cases. Where judges do make law, they should do so within narrow constraints.There is undoubtedly some virtue in this principle. The most famous exponent of judicial creativity in modern times is almost certainly Lord Denning. His view was very much that it was the job of the judge to ‘do justice'; if that meant that principles of law had to be bent to fit, that was a price worth paying. The problem is that his decisions do not generalise. It is often difficult for later judges, reading his reasoning, to determine whether the decisions he made are based on law that ought to be applicable in other cases, or to fact situations particular to the case under consideration.This is evidenced by the fact that many of the principles that he established by doing the right thing in a particular case have come to be misapplied in later cases, and have had to be circumscribed by later judges. For example, his decision in Solle v Butcher (1949) that a contract could be set aside on ‘equitable grounds' when entered under a mutual mistake, did justice in the case itself. This decision was followed in a large number of cases, but it was never entirely clear what would amount to ‘equitable grounds'.Finally, in 20 03 the case of The Great Peace more or less demolished the entire concept of ‘mistake in equity' and put this branch of law back where it was 50 years ago. Even if judicial creativity can do justice in the present case without compromising later decisions, there are other reasons why judicial creativity should be constrained. Judges are only able to deal with cases they hear; it is difficult for them to take a wider view of any issue. Judges are not well-placed to make decisions that involve elements of social policy.In addition, arguably judges are drawn from a much narrower section of society than MPs, and therefore less representative. Third, Atiyah argues that judicial lawmaking is tolerated only because it is not exercised openly. Lord Devlin has argued (Judges and lawmakers [1976] 39 MLR 11) that if the courts are given, or arrogate to themselves, the power to make decisions without retrospective effect (and thereby demolish the declarative theory) this will amount to an approval to engage in judicial law-making in the large.While we accept that development of the law requires an occasional exercise of judicial creativity, the fact that it has to be done on the sly means that it won't be done all that often: Paddling across the Rubicon by individuals in disguise†¦ is better than the bridging of the river by an army in uniform with bands playing. Atiyah's fourth argument is that many judges themselves have a naive and simplistic view of their own lawmaking role.They frequently speak or write as though the only alternative to a slavish devotion to the declaratory theory is the wholesale abandonment of the doctrine of precedent and the separation of powers. Judges frequently invoke Seldon's old chestnut about the law varying with the length of the Lord Chancellor's foot as a reason for their own conservatism. However, there is no reason to assume that a disavowal of the declaratory theory need signal the end of the doctrine of precedent (it has n ot done so in the USA), or the dissolution of the separation of powers.The fifth argument is that public respect for the judiciary depends on their strict and evident impartiality. If the judge was seen to create or change law, the implication is that the judge prefers one view of law to another. But, as Atiyah says, there is no reason to believe that the public will respect a judge that is impartial but unjust, more than one that is partial but fair. Judicial adherence, at least in public, to the declaratory theory may be for the very best of motives.However, in a well-educated, democratic society, it is doubtful whether it is ever appropriate for the governing classes to espouse one point of view in public, and a different one in private. Not only is it intellectually dishonest, it is doubtful whether it is necessary. Moreover, it is a strategy that is unlikely to work for much longer. It seems unlikely that the public will be moved to increased confidence in the judiciary, when i t becomes obvious that the judiciary have practised a paternalistic and patronising form of misinformation for all these years. â€Å"

Personality & Attitudes on Revenge in the General Population of Scotland Essay

Fantasies vary from person to person and are dependent on psychological condition. In a clinical population fantasies tend to last longer than in non-clinical populations. Although overall each fantasy has been reported to last relatively short periods of time, the frequency of which they occur is usually the factor that determines whether they are of concern or not (Gellerman and Suddath, 2005). There seems to be a limited quantity of research available on the general understanding of this topic however the literature that does exist appears to focus on three particular areas, sustaining fantasies – as a means of coping with painful and stressful situations in the general population but particularly in the clinical population (Zelin, Bernstein, Heijn, Jampel, Myerson, Adler, Buie & Rizzuto, 1983; Harder & Zelin, 1984; Greenwald & Harder, 1994; Greenwald & Harder, 1995 & Greenwald and Harder, 1997); aggressive fantasies – for pleasure or satisfaction in the general popu lation but more often than not habitually involuntary for the clinical population and generally violent, sexual and sadistic in nature (Gellerman & Suddath, 2005; Egan & Campbell, 2009 & Selby, Anestis & Joiner (2007), and finally, revenge fantasies – concerning those who have experienced trauma (Mardi & Harowitz, 2007). In search of material for this review surprise has it that homicidal fantasies on the whole is the one of which focuses on a more simple view of its apparent natural occurrence in natural surroundings of everyday life, and highlights the evolving acceptance that many normal law abiding citizens can and do have fantasies. Sustaining Fantasy From a study conducted by Zelin et al (1983) the Sustaining Fantasy Questionnaire (SFQ) was developed to measure sustaining functions in psychiatric inpatients in comparison with non-patients. This questionnaire was constructed specifically to measure fantasies of death, withdrawal, restitution, suffering, God, closeness, power and revenge, admiration of self, competition and aesthetics. The questionnaire was then utilised to determine that psychiatric inpatients scored higher than non-patients on fantasies of death, withdrawal, restitution, suffering, God and closeness but fantasies of power and revenge, admiration of self, competition and aesthetics did not differentiate between groups. Thus, suggesting that the questionnaire was able to differentiate the groups by fantasy factors such as death, withdrawal, restitution, suffering, God and closeness and highlighted associations of power and revenge, admiration of self, competition and aesthetics with an independent measure of psycho logy. It is said that experiencing Sustaining Fantasies is a familiar, consistent and repetitive conscious fantasy adopted to help cope with feelings of a painful and stressful situation. According to Zelin et al (1983) the sustaining fantasy is a concept based on the observation that at times of extreme negative emotional states, caused by anger or narcissistic grievance, people often resort to this as a means of re-creating a more ideal situation than that of which stimulated the painful experience, fabricating a sense of satisfaction, restoring self-esteem and emotional equilibrium, and decreasing frustration. Ultimately, the sustaining fantasy is based on the assumption that such fantasies signify and demonstration the basic construction and processes that have evolved in the course of efforts to adapt to painful situations. We are reminded by Zelin et al (1983) that this fantasy is of a specific type called only into play when suffering increasing levels of stress, and should not be c onfused by those fantasies used as a disguised endeavour of pleasure or solutions to relatively un-stressful problems, such studies will be discussed later in the review. One year on, Harder & Zelin (1984) furthered the study of Zelin et al (1983) accepting that the sustaining fantasy questionnaire was developed primarily with psychiatric inpatients, but recognising also, the potential for its use in testing correlates among a more general sample. Assuming that everyone uses sustaining fantasies to aid or support themselves through highly stressful periods in life and presuming the importance of this factor in the capability to manage adaptively rather than maladaptively, Harder & Zelin (1984) extended interests and investigations into the personality functioning in the general population as well as with pathological persons. They did this by examining the relationship between the 10 types of sustaining fantasies reported by Zelin et al (1983) and two dimensions of self-concept – self-derogation and stability of self-concept, suspecting that the type of sustaining fantasy that the person characteristically brings into play will be consistent with and in support of their self-concept, an important relation with psychological-social adjustment and even a potential determinant of psychological-social adjustment. Successfully, the results demonstrated that the Sustaining Fantasy Questionnaire was reliable not only to differentiate between groups of psychiatric inpatients from normal controls, as Zelin et al (1983) demonstrated, but also to distinguish the group of college students used in this study. Just over a decade later Greenwald & Harder (1994) followed on from Zelin et al (1983), attempting to examine the expected associations between psychopathology, almost replicating exactly, apart from their use of a student population primarily from a middle-class backgrounds. In addition, Greenwald & Harder (1994) questioned if the sustaining fantasy scales associated with weaker functioning, reflects a more general pathology factor as proposed in the data of Zelin et al (1983) or, whether each reflects a particular maladaptive style that is signified by an exceptional construction of associations with the MMPI clinical scales. Further support and reliability of Zelin et al (1983) is strengthened in Greenwald & Harder’s (1994) findings that power/revenge, death/illness, withdrawal/protection and suffering are all related significantly to two of the MMPI measures of overall psychopathology, therefore four of the six fantasy types that imply psychopathology in the inpatients (Ze lin et al, 1983) were too the indicators of pathology in the study using the middle-class students. Considering all of the previously mentioned studies (Zelin et al, 1983; Harder & Zelin, 1984; Greenwald & Harder, 1994) it seems fair to say that ample evidence has been gathered to show that definite types of sustaining fantasy ideas, characteristically used to comfort the self when experiencing feelings of hurt and stress, are associated with indications of psychopathological adjustment. The aim for Greenwald & Harder (1995) was then to examine to what extent there are parallels between them and the degree to which such content ideas may well point out psychopathology. With reference to past research on daydreaming, where Singer & Antrobus (1972) have suggested that particular collections of imagery content appear to propose less favourable styles, there seems to be similarities with the findings of Zelin et al (1983), although they did emphasise the difference between other fantasies such as daydreams and remind us not to confuse them. Contrary to this emphasis and that of Zelin et al (1983), clinical impressions have proposed that in more ways than one, the overall content of these two types of fantasies is rather parallel. As a result of this proposal, Greenwald & Harder (1995) investigated whether sustaining fantasies generally show a strong similarity to the typical daydreams preferred by an individual, or whether there really is a movement from the content of ordinary daydreams to the familiar self-comforting ones that provide support during feelings of pain and stress. To do this they compared the Sustaining Fantasy Questionnaire and the numerous Imaginal Process Inventory (IPI) (Singer & Antrobus, 1972) scales for correspondence in content and in their relationships to measures of psychopathology, and a great deal of consistency was discovered even when partialling for social desirability. It was concluded that there was in fact considerable overlap in the content and of correspondence between both, sustaini ng fantasy and daydreams, and furthermore, it was highlighted that three particular IPI scales were observed to give significant indications of psychopathology – fear reaction, bizarre and hostile. Despite the delight in these findings Greenwald & Harder (1995) speculated the possibility that rather than the findings being a result of specific content they may be the result of a broad level of association between the two scales. In pursuit of this speculation further analysis detected the average degree of correlation between SFQ and IPI characteristics in comparison to the level of association displayed by those relationships they predicted, finding that although there was no significance, there was a trend toward significance. Thus, suggesting that a general commonality between the SFQ and the IPI may have been a factor in contributing to the extent of their success in predictions for the study. On this note one should be reminded that for the purpose of reliability and validity, considering an underlying weakness alongside the success is vital for future study in terms of recognising the possibility for individuals to very well fantasize and daydream simultaneously in ordinary and/or stressful situations. It is now becoming apparent that sustaining fantasies are perhaps not quite as specific from other fantasies in particular situations such as coping with stressful matters, as was first thought, or, that if they are, they do not always emerge completely alone. Based on the results of this study Greenwald & Harder (1995) propose the question of whether it would be beneficial to use the findings of their study, subsequent past research, to investigate clinical manipulation of the content and/or frequency of fantasy having therapeutic effects, bearing in mind the given definition of sustaining fantasy in Zelin et al (1983) at the beginnings of this extensive research. To address the proposed questions that emerged from Greenwald & Harder (1995) they conducted another study in 1997 replicating the previously discussed studies and replicating reported relationships between coping behaviours and psychopathology however, this time they utilised measurement instruments that were developed by different investigators, presented different response formats, and were not developed to measure the same content areas as before. They assessed whether consistent relationships exist between the content of self-reported coping behaviours, sustaining fantasies, and ordinary daydreams and in addition attempted to identify coping behaviours associated with psychopathology, exploring any connections between coping behaviours, fantasies, and daydreams correlated with pathology. Pearson correlations indicated similar content between coping behaviours and the two types of fantasy and significant inter-correlations were found between sustaining fantasies, daydreams, and coping behaviours that, separately, were found to be significantly associated with psychopathology. In the process of this investigation, and with influencing thoughts created by the previous workings, Greenwald and Harder (1997) took into consideration the likelihood to expect there would be a consistency between the region of fantasy and behaviour, and that individuals would report thoughts and action in parallel ways but then again, consider also that it is also probable to anticipate that fantasies could serve as a substitute for action, and that a report of specific fantasy content might be inversely associated with behaviour that contains similar content. Growing in strength, again the results of Greenwald & Harder (1997) were successful in that there is a significant association with regard to the content among self-reported daydreams, sustaining fantasies, and coping behaviours, even after controlling for social desirability. These results are found to be more influential due to the fact that they were obtained with assessment instruments that were developed by different investigators, used different response formats, and were not developed to measure the same content areas. Therefore, this information suggest that, while there may be some instances of fantasies and behaviours that relate inversely to each other, fantasies usually are consistent with behavioural coping styles. These findings then highlight that there is a complex of daydreams, fantasies, and behavioural responses that could be used to characterize individuals. Furthermore, to generalize the findings of this study it was recommended that future studies should be conducted with other subject populations that take into account age, culture, socioeconomic status and residence environment (Greenwald & Harder, 1997), however, it seems appropriate to mention that perhaps at this point it is a good time to look at how the sustaining fantasy ideology has branched out to embrace other influencing factors. Aggressive Fantasies Egan & Campbell (2009) expanded research on sustaining fantasies almost taking it to a new level by selecting a diverse population, as recommended by Greenwald & Harder (1997), but more importantly taking into account other domains that showed potential to reveal relationships from another angle. Such were, sensational topics, general personality traits, and self-reported physical aggression. They found relationships between sensational interests and physical aggression, regardless of gender. Personality and the application of negative sustaining fantasies significantly forecast physical aggression. When the SFQ was reduced to three higher order factors; positive, negative, and narcissistic sustaining fantasies, correlations were found between neuroticism (N) and both positive and negative sustaining fantasies, although the association was stronger for negative fantasies. There were small associations between positive sustaining fantasies and indirect non-physical hostility although these relations were humble, and openness (O) was a stronger predictor. Narcissistic sustaining fantasies related to low levels of agreeableness (A), replicating associations between low A and narcissism generally. Ultimately proposing that aggressive and hostile persons are more stimulated by violent stimuli and that isolation is a further risk-increasing factor for aggressive interests. Following on from this conclusion of risk-increasing factors, attention was directed back a few years in literature to a study conducted by Gellerman & Suddath (2005). They discussed risk-increasing factors in relation to questioning at what point would a health professional perhaps become concerned with a person’s fantasy enough for it to become their duty to forewarn or protect others from potential dangerousness, or even attempt to protect the person from them self. In the health profession an evaluation of dangerousness includes not only asking about violent fantasies but also asking about physical and sexual content (Gellerman & Suddath, 2005). Gellerman and Suddath (2005) looked at the conditions in which the disclosure of violent fantasies to a mental health professional may generate cause for concern and a duty to warn or protect other citizens. Reviewing legal cases in which violent fantasies were considered in the context of measuring potential dangerousness and the literature available on homicidal and sexually violent fantasies in both non-incarcerated and criminal populations was also examined. It was concluded that no dependable predictive relationship between violent fantasies and wickedly hazardous behaviour was reported in the available literature and suggestions of issues that mental health professionals may think about when gauging whether a particular violent fantasy is a sign for concern requiring rise to a duty in protecting others. At last, this paper is very interesting in that it is greatly unbiased and clearly discusses both the harmful aspects of fantasy as well as the innocent or un-harmful aspects, thus showing the importance of distinguishing between the two possibilities, which must be said, is something that is lacking in the papers previously reviewed. Gellerman and Suddath (2005) explained in detail the definition of violent fantasy for the purpose of their paper which must be credited as again, not many papers in this field have done so. They expressed their perception of violent fantasy as a thought in which an individual imagines physically harming a fellow human being in some way. They explain that the content of individual fantasies may vary from anything such as murder, sexual assault, or inappropriate sexual activity. It is emphasised that fantasy must be distinguished from an intention, in that the imaginary violence is not instantaneously designed to guide or prepare for action. On the other hand, it is said that any expression of intention to harm another person is when we should have cause for concern as this is without doubt communicating a â€Å"threat† rather than a fantasy. Gellerman and Suddath (2005) noted two important points in terms of distinguishing between fantasy being harmless or harmful, firstly, while not instantaneously aimed at guiding action, fantasy has been illustrated as serving a number of clinical functions, including control and relief of anxiety and substitution for action therefore harmless to others and at the same time very useful to the fantasizer, secondly, from a harmful perspective fantasy may also be preparation for action and it is from this perspective that concern should be heightened in the evaluation of dangerousness and the duty to protect. Gellerman and Suddath (2005) go on to give balanced examples of both harmless and harmful fantasies. In their comparisons of both sides and in both populations, un-incarcerated and criminal, together with their overall review of the literature they used, they suggest that as fantasies of murder were fairly common in general Western European and American populations, and a range of fantasies of aggression and sexual violence were less common, but were by no means rare, people should bear in mind that this high prevalence of homicidal and sexually aggressive fantasy can only make us question then, to what extent can such fantasies be considered deviant. In addition it should be highlighted that Gellerman and Suddath (2005) found that existing studies have evidently established that many more individuals have homicidal and sexually violent fantasies than act on them. The relationship between violent fantasy and behaviour in these studies was correlative at best, and no suggestions were given in attempt to identifying the minority of individuals with violent fantasies who may be at risk of acting them out. Altogether, it was concluded that predictors better than fantasies alone are the eminence of the fantasies, the concern with them, and the level of preparation and detail, and the history of any past violent behaviours all need to be looked at collectively (Gellerman & Suddath, 2005). Another study of interest where aggressive fantasies seek personal pleasure but in a paradoxical way is that of Selby, Anestis & Joiner (2007). They reported that suicidal individuals regularly report the reoccurrence of fantasy where they can visualise their death by suicide very clearly in their imagination, almost like watching it on TV. Selby et al (2007) found that many unremittingly suicidal individuals are thought to have a romantic affection for death and as a result, connect themselves in vivid fantasies or daydreams about the process and the after-effects. This somewhat idealistic thought process even appears to be a pleasant motion for them. In desperation of escape from torment and pain (Baumeister, 1990), it seems that the act of suicide is the answer and therefore thinking about the liberation that death would present, perhaps enables suicidal individuals to experience positive affects similar to that of non-suicidal individuals daydreaming or fantasizing about future life events such as holidays (Selby et al, 2007). This daydreaming may actually be a form of emotion dysregulation, in suicidal individuals, one that would appear, perhaps paradoxically, to increase positive affect yet may increase later risk for serious suicidal behaviour. This psychological state was also considered by Zelin et al (1983). Revenge Fantasies Suicidal behaviour, just like the fantasies they provoke, vary in content and from person to person however for the purpose of this review it should be mentioned that revenge fantasies among many other things, can often be the cause for suicidal behaviour (Mardi & Harowitz, 2007). In one way the reason behind the fantasies are similar per se; feelings of rage shame guilt etc., but in another way very different; often unwanted and uncontrollable. Revenge fantasies are described as being beyond normal bitter thoughts and sometimes dangerous. The study conducted by Mardi & Harowitz (2007) was an attempt to seek solutions to a hypothetical case demonstrating a problem existing in clinical practice. The method behind this is for the authors to review current data on prevalence, diagnosis, pathophysiology, and treatment and ultimately conclude treatment recommendations. Again it is brought to attention that the quantity of literature addressing fantasy is limited, Mardi & Harowitz (2007) pointed out at the beginning of their paper that revenge fantasies have been discussed in literature, however not adequately addressed, a problem common for most papers in this review. Like all other fantasies per se, revenge fantasies can provide a sense of reinstated purpose and regain of control in an otherwise traumatized life and purely for this purpose it is imperative to assist traumatized individuals in recognizing this. Mardi & Harowitz (2007) split the scenario up into sections in sequence to how step by step the scenario would be assessed and addressed in a clinical setting. All important techniques and procedures were discussed such as, the importance of techniques in psychotherapy being put in place with the much needed interpretations and reappraisals and with careful differentiation of rational and irrational beliefs. It was explained that it is then, that the function of revenge fantasies as giving an illusion of strength can be interpreted. Mardi & Harowitz (2007) suggest the fact that the results of therapy may be attenuation of symptoms, and revenge fantasies are deep-rooted, there is an important need for informing the patients that revenge fantasies are likely to return, and are frequently generated by things as simple as seeing a movie, being hurt, or entering an irritated mood as a result of fatigue. Mardi & Harowitz (2007) go on to explain that the professional should help the patient plan a comeback, which can engage in reviewing a pre-established set of ideas, overall they express that their goal is to help the patient gain a sense of restored control, self-esteem, and self-coherence without resorting to the ‘strong-me’ property of a revenge fantasy. Taking into account the apparent lack of topic specific resources that provide general information on the influences of fantasy in the general public, and the gaps that seem wide open between studies in fantasy, it seems fair to say that the beginning would be a good place to start. As a result the current study will seek to investigate attitudes of the general public toward fantasies, looking to find out what they think fantasies might be and to what extent they think it is normal for people to have them. It will be hypothesised that most people will believe that a fantasy is a mere thought of imagination detached from reality to satisfy emotional desires without logical or moral constraints and likewise most people will agree that it is normal to have fantasies. It is expected that more people will agree, than disagree, that it is ok and can be accepted as normal for people to have homicidal fantasies. Method Design A between-participants point biserial correlation will be used to analyse the data. The independent variables will be the self report personality inventory (IPIP-NEO) and the attitude measuring questions and the dependent variable will be participants score on the IPIP-NEO and the attitude score. Variables such as gender, age, marital status, housing tenure, regions, employment status, income bracket and criminal convictions will also be considered in relation to participant response to both independent variables. Participants According to G Power participant number should be 191, however, for an equal balance, it will be at least 100 males and 100 females. The male and female participants will be ages of or between 21 and 65, and split between four regions (Glasgow, Paisley, Edinburgh & Dundee). Apparatus Participant information sheets (PIS) and consent forms will be given along with questionnaires that will be used to measure psychopathic personality traits (IPIP-NEO) and attitudes on aggressive revenge fantasies. Each participant will be given the same questionnaire to complete. The statistical analysis programme SPSS will be used to analyse and correlate the data. Procedure Each participant will be given a brief introduction of the study and asked if they are willing to take part, if they are willing then they will be asked to carefully read the PIS, sign the consent form, which will be detached from the questionnaire as they will be anonymous, and complete the questionnaire. The questionnaire consists of a self-report personality inventory, the International Personality Item Pool – NEO (IPIP-NEO) developed by Witt, Donnellan & Blonigen (2009), of which permission for use was granted by Edward A. Witt. This 40 item inventory will measure the psychopathic personality traits of fearless dominance (20 items) and Impulsive Antisociality (20 items) to assess how high or low participants score in comparison with each other. A four-option multiple response (False, Mostly False, Mostly True, True) format and a Likert-type scale will be used (False = 1, Mostly False = 2, Mostly True = 3, True = 4) to measure the data. In exception, the 1st, 4th, 9th, 14th, 15th,16th and 17th questions of Fearless Dominance will be measured in reverse scale. The second part of the questionnaire consists of 10 questions regarding attitudes toward people having revenge fantasies. Again, a four-option multiple response (strongly disagree, disagree, agree, strongly agree) format and a Likert-type scale will be used (strongly disagree = 1, disagree = 2, agree = 3, strongly agree = 4) to measure the data. Reference Baumeister, R. F. (1990). Suicide as Escape from Self. Psychological Review, 97, 90-113. Egan, V. & Campbell, V. (2009) Sensational Interests, Sustaining Fantasies and Personality Predict Physical Aggression. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 464-469 Gellerman, D. M. & Suddath, R. (2005). Violent Fantasy, Dangerousness, and the Duty to Warn and Protect. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatric Law, 33, 484-495. Greenwald, D. F. & Harder, D. W. (1994). Sustaining Fantasies and Psychopathology in a Normal Sample. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 50, 705-708. Greenwald, D. F. & Harder, D. W. (1995). Sustaining Fantasies, Daydreams, and Psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 51, 719-726. Greenwald, D. F. & Harder, D. W. (1997). Fantasies, Coping Behaviour, and Psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53, 91-97. Harder, D. W. & Zelin, M. L. (1984). Sustaining Fantasies and Self-Concept Among College Students. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40, 743-748 Mardi, J. & Harowitz, M. D. (2007). Understanding and Ameliorating Revenge Fantasies in Psychotherapy. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 24-27. Selby, E. A., Anestis, M. D. & Joiner Jr, T. E. (2007). Daydreaming About Death: Violent Daydreaming as a Form of Emotion Dysregulation in Suicidality. Behavior Modification, 31, 867-879. Singer, J. L. & Antrobus, J. S. (1972). Daydreaming, Imaginal Processes and Personality: A Normative Study. In P. W. Sheehan (Ed.). The function and nature of imagery. (pp. 175-202). New York: Academic Press. Witt, E. A., Donnellan, M. B. & Blonigen, D. M. (2009). Using Existing Self-Report Inventories to Measure the Psychopathic Personality Trait of Fearless Dominance and Impulsive Antisociality. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 1006-1016. Zelin, M. L., Bernstein, S. B., Heijn, C., Jampel, R. M., Myerson, P. G., Adler, G., Buie, D. H. & Rizzuto, A. M. (1983). The Sustaining Fantasy Questionnaire: Measurement of Sustaining Functions in Psychiatric Inpatients. Journal of Personality Assessment, 47, 427- 439.   

Background information on how the development LASIK

However, the majority of humans who wear glasses or contact lenses are bothering from it. Therefore, Jose Barraquer discovered LASIK in 1950, which is considered one of the recent technologies in vision correction. LASIK is a Latin word that indicates to create a thin layer of the cornea (black eye) and then using the laser vision correction (LASIK Portal, 2010). Background information on how the development LASIK Lasik is one of the most important types of eye surgery in advance medical that intended for improving in particular Myopia, Hyperopia and Astigmatism. It was invention by Jose Barraquer at the first time, where he effectuated the first operationto reduce the thin flaps in the cornea to change its shape by keratomileusis. By 1981, the Alaximr Laser was been founded which worked on ultraviolet radiation, and it was used at the first time by Rangaswamy Srinivasan to decrease tissue in specific way through extract layers of thin films without any effects thermal in surrounding area. As a result, he could use this kind of Laser without any side effect compared to different type of Laser which worked in the field of visible radiation. After a number of experiments, the Lasik technique has been improved in 1990 by Ioannis Pallikaris and Lucio Buratto to become more accuracy than keratomileusis. All of these results led Stephen Brint and Stephen Slade to performed surgery operation in the United States for the first time (Ezine Articles, 2011). With the development of technology, Lasik has become more fast than before and it has been improved to be better (Wikipedia, 2011). The way the LASIK has affected peoples’ lives; . The majority of humans bother from wearing spectacles or contact lenses therefore they want to eliminate them by Lasik. Lasik has many positive effects on humans including that Lasik has ability to accurately correct most layers of Myopia, Hyperopia and Astigmatism. Moreover, its surgery occupies five to ten minutes with painless or very little pain. It is one of the easiest operations because it is operated by computer and does not require any stitches after it.One of the most important factors of Lasik that most patients are not longer needed corrective glasses. Conclusion Background information on how the development LASIK However, the majority of humans who wear glasses or contact lenses are bothering from it. Therefore, Jose Barraquer discovered LASIK in 1950, which is considered one of the recent technologies in vision correction. LASIK is a Latin word that indicates to create a thin layer of the cornea (black eye) and then using the laser vision correction (LASIK Portal, 2010). Background information on how the development LASIK Lasik is one of the most important types of eye surgery in advance medical that intended for improving in particular Myopia, Hyperopia and Astigmatism. It was invention by Jose Barraquer at the first time, where he effectuated the first operationto reduce the thin flaps in the cornea to change its shape by keratomileusis. By 1981, the Alaximr Laser was been founded which worked on ultraviolet radiation, and it was used at the first time by Rangaswamy Srinivasan to decrease tissue in specific way through extract layers of thin films without any effects thermal in surrounding area. As a result, he could use this kind of Laser without any side effect compared to different type of Laser which worked in the field of visible radiation. After a number of experiments, the Lasik technique has been improved in 1990 by Ioannis Pallikaris and Lucio Buratto to become more accuracy than keratomileusis. All of these results led Stephen Brint and Stephen Slade to performed surgery operation in the United States for the first time (Ezine Articles, 2011). With the development of technology, Lasik has become more fast than before and it has been improved to be better (Wikipedia, 2011). The way the LASIK has affected peoples’ lives; . The majority of humans bother from wearing spectacles or contact lenses therefore they want to eliminate them by Lasik. Lasik has many positive effects on humans including that Lasik has ability to accurately correct most layers of Myopia, Hyperopia and Astigmatism. Moreover, its surgery occupies five to ten minutes with painless or very little pain. It is one of the easiest operations because it is operated by computer and does not require any stitches after it.One of the most important factors of Lasik that most patients are not longer needed corrective glasses. Conclusion

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the Electoral College Essay

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the Electoral College - Essay Example The Contender is required to take a broad advance. It is within the Electoral College that the presidential applicants are liable to choose a running mate from another region. The procedure is essential as the government avoids regional problems (Hudson and Roger 40). Another benefit of the Electoral College is that it allows the minority groups to make a difference in the voting process. The supporters argue that Minorities in a region have the possibility of creating a divergence amid prevailing of a regions electoral vote or losing (Kimberling and William 1992). The supporters of the Electoral College also argue that it helps in maintaining the federal character in a country. The supporters argue that the Electoral College system grants every region the freewill to design its laws regarding voting. Electoral College also allows each region to make amendments (Hudson and Roger 40). The supporters of the Electoral College also argue that the depressing result of the Electoral College on third parties as an excellent scheme. The Electoral College upholds the current two party systems in presenting the region with firm constancy (Kimberling and William 1992). The supporters of the Electoral College also argue the Electoral College maintains division of powers. The constitution has been designed to segregate the government to three diverse branches that are intended to present stability plus consideration. Some supporters argue that if the President is voted directly he can state a countrywide popular mandate that will challenge other government branches (Hudson and Roger 40). One of the disadvantages is that in many states, the contender with many votes gets every electoral vote of that region. The minority regions have an account of constantly voting for a Democrat or a Republican. Contenders are capable of not

Hospitals and health centres. Negative Media Exposure on Management Dissertation

Hospitals and health centres. Negative Media Exposure on Management Practices - Dissertation Example The study will analyse how patients who are also members of the public are affected by negative media exposure of the hospitals or health centres that they visit. Based on the statistics, the study will make come up with recommendations that health institutions facing negative media exposure can apply to handle negative publicity. The world has experienced immense growth of mass media over the past few decades (Herrick 2012, p.3). At the same time, many countries all over the world have experienced significant democratization allowing for media freedom. This is very critical since the mass media plays a crucial role in informing citizens of what is happening in the country and beyond. However, its impact in the corporate world has been prodigious. In this regard, mass media has been helpful in revealing the status of an organization in terms of management practices whether good or bad. Nevertheless, Stareva (2013) indicates that most organizations often want news regarding the organization to be publicized through mass media when the organization appears to be doing well. This is because the good news about the company helps in selling the company to potential investors. For example, organizations tend to rash to publicize their financial accounts through the media when the organization happens to have made massive profits. This also applies when an organization receives an award for good performance.

'In your opinion, what are the key corporate governance issues Essay

'In your opinion, what are the key corporate governance issues presented in this case and why' - Essay Example The basic role of corporate governance deals with the governance process of the corporation as well as how the management relates with several parties that are interested in the operations of the corporation, namely; shareholders, employees, directors, customers, creditors and suppliers. Every organization desires to have a good corporate governance that is not out to only minimize the possible risks of fraud and failure but also to improve the economic performance and its investment climate. Such governance relates public savings, investment, integrity and market confidence making corporate governance an important inclusion in order to achieve financial stability and economic growth for a long time. The corporation in question is the Royal Dutch/Shell Group which has remained the third largest production and oil production in the world. The size of the corporation makes corporate governance an important factor as it employs more than 119, 000 employees in more than 145 countries (Ev ans, 2004). For decades, Shell/Royal Dutch has been keen to maintain a good position among the top most global corporations. Its corporate governance has mostly been interested in the stability of the corporation in relation to its operations and name. ... ation Governance Issues The declaration by Royal Dutch/Shell Group that it was facing inflated oil reserves and that it intended to downgrade approximately four billion oil and gas reserves resulted to a furor among industry analysts as well as its investors who came out strongly blaming the opaque and complex governance structure that was twin-board for the issues facing the group. Analysts and experts claimed that this type of structure lacked proper accountability as well as resulted to financial manipulations (Hanney, 2004). The main corporation issue facing the Royal Dutch/Shell Group is thus its governance structure that entailed a twin board. This structure is believed to have had several loopholes in its governance thus the several issues associated with the group. The consequent of the above was a series of turmoil for the group. The public announcement of reserves reduction claimed that the company was fond of blaming human failings through its top executives and not come u p with critics on the weaknesses of the structure of Shell (Malin, 2004). The reaction of the group following the mounting pressure from its investors was to institute reviews and recognize and appreciated that it had complicated the organization in unusual ways but still insisted that it is the same structure that had taken the group to the greatest heights for more than one hundred years thus is justified by the legal regimes and differing tax. The issues facing Shell are not just a problem of the group but an issue facing the international gas and oil industry. Royal Dutch/Shell Group Governance Structure The main issue facing the governance of the group goes up to some of its senior executives who recognize that the corporation reserves were overstated. In addition to this realization,

Politicians, Corruption and the Police Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Politicians, Corruption and the Police - Essay Example Government official misuse their power for their personal benefits. The political corruption is an illegal act which is directly related to official duties. Each & every department of the government is effected with political corruption. These corruptions may include activities like buying-off or bribery, partiality, benefaction, splice, and fraud. Such types of activities or corruptions are different in different countries. Some activities or practice like allocation of funds for some project may be legal for one country and illegal for the other country. Allocations of big project to their relatives are also a big corruption found in government offices. By allocating the big project to their relatives the government officials got benefits. Government official have some percentage in funds allocated to the project. Although this money is treated as black money, still most of the government officials are practicing it. Here we are discussing a case related to the Member of Parliament (MP) in Australia who is involved in prostitution related activities. As we have done the case study, we came to know that the Member of Parliament is involved in prostitution related activity in a regional town in central Queensland. This area is prohibited for prostitution and the persons who are involving in the prostitution in that area are doing illegal practices. The Member of Parliament is looking for prostitutes in the prohibited area. And after providing them with the food, money, he had a safe night sleep with them. Again as per the report Member of Parliament is using his office vehicle to carry women from one place to another. Here Member of Parliament is doing two illegal operations which he should not perform. One is enhancing prostitution in the prohibited area and the use of office vehicle. Though the both types of operations are done by government official these comes under political

The Hypocrisy of Civilized Society as a Major Theme in Huckleberry Research Paper

The Hypocrisy of Civilized Society as a Major Theme in Huckleberry Finn - Research Paper Example It's also where he gained a lot of the experience he would need to create The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Although these were essentially children's stories, Twain had a tendency to create stories with a much deeper meaning underneath the charm and the humor. He encouraged his readers to plunge the depths of their understanding and adapt their behavior to a more accurate reflection of their inner beliefs (Railton, 2007). In The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Twain blatantly criticizes the hypocrisy of 'civilized' society as he ridicules religion, satirizes education, criticizes slavery, and exposes aristocratic characters. Twain Ridicules Religion Religion was a particular sore spot with Twain and he expresses his disdain of it through the characters of the Widow Douglas and Miss Watson. These poor ladies remain obediently devout through everything, without seeming to realize that their belief structures are almost entirely contradictory. Huck sums it up when he's out thinking i n the woods, "I judged I could see that there was two Providences, and a poor chap would stand considerable show with the widow’s Providence, but if Miss Watson’s got him there warn’t no help for him any more" (23). ... Even though the families sit calmly together in church, the feud begins again the moment they step foot off of church property: "The men took their guns along, so did Buck†¦The Shepherdsons done the same. It was pretty ornery preaching- all about brotherly love, and such-like tiresomeness;† (129), but the families don't hear any of it. Even with the church pleading with them to put aside their fight, it is the feud rather than the church that has the greatest influence on them. â€Å"Worse than the mindless, inherited pattern of the feud, however, is the fact that it serves no purpose, since the original cause of the conflict long has been forgotten.† (Wright 90). This experience has a profound effect on Huck's later decisions. When it comes time for Huck to decide whether to turn in his friend Jim as a runaway slave, Huck decides it would be better to go to hell. â€Å"I took it up, and held it in my hand. I was trembling, because I’d got to decide, forever , betwixt two things, and I knowed it. I studied a minute, sort of holding my breath, and then says to myself: ‘All right, then, I’ll go to hell’- and tore it up† (223). â€Å"Huck's justly celebrated crisis of conscience, which culminates in his resolve to free Jim, even if doing so condemns him to hell† (Smith 8) is made a bit easier by his understanding of how others observed their religion. Twain Satirizes Education It is an indication of his depth of satire that Twain uses Huck, an almost completely uneducated narrator, to point out the depth of society's corruption including its failures within the educational system. He doesn't see much use for it in any of his interactions with others. For example, Tom

Contract Law. Westwood Ltds Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Contract Law. Westwood Ltds - Case Study Example Clint inspected the machine and, thinking that it would be appreciated by both the customers and staff of his toy store, agreed to buy it. The toy store had never had a drinks vending machine before nor anything like it. Westwood Ltd said that it would partially dismantle the machine and pack it into a wooden crate in order to make it easier for Clint to take delivery. Delivery was arranged for the following week with payment to be made on delivery. On Tuesday, the warehouse manager of Westwood Ltd packed the remaining stock of 500 toy guns into two separate wooden crates, one containing 200 and the other 300. Westwood Ltd had not yet managed to find anyone other than Clint to purchase any of the toy guns. The warehouse manager screwed a wooden lid onto the crate of 200 toy guns and then marked it with Clint's name ready for delivery. The crate of 300 toy guns remained directly next to the crate of 200 toys guns which was now marked for Clint. On Tuesday night, vandals broke into Westwood Ltd's warehouse and destroyed the crate of 200 toy guns labelled for Clint. The vending machine as agreed to be sold to Clint was also damaged. The crate of 300 toy guns was not damaged. 3) Further explain how your advice would differ, if at all, if the retail toy store referred to above wa... Answer: Background of the Case In the United Kingdom, Contract of Sale of Goods is a contract by which the seller transfers or agrees to transfer the property in goods to the buyer for a money or consideration, called the price (Sec. 2, par.1, Sale of Goods Act 1979). The Sale of Goods Act 1979 is the main statute that binds the contract of sale in the United Kingdom and was amended by the following relevant or related law and legislation: Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982, Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1994, and The Sale of Goods to Consumers Regulations 2002. A contract of sale is deemed perfected when both of the parties, the seller and the buyer, of the contract had accepted unconditionally the terms of the contract like the price, mode of payment, date and place of delivery, and others. Once a contract is perfected, certain duties are imposed under the law of contract of sales for both of the parties to perform and certain rights also were created the performance of which can be reciprocally demanded from one another (Part IV, Sales of Goods Act 1979). Normally, a contract of sale of goods should be reduced in writing to conform to the Statute of Frauds. Other form includes oral contract or combination of oral and written contracts (Sec. 4, Sale of Goods Act 1979). Failure to follow the tenor of the terms of the contract is equivalent to breach of contract by which the party at fault can be held liable for the payment of damages or other relevant legal remedies (Part VI, Sale of Goods Act 1979). The latest relevant regulation that is The Sale of Goods to Consumers Regulations 2002, apply to a range of transactions between businesses and consumers, including the sale

Empiricism Semantics and Ontology Carn Essay Example for Free

Empiricism Semantics and Ontology Carn Essay I. The Problem of Abstract Entities Empiricists attempt to limit themselves to nominalistic language, a language not containing references to abstract entities such as properties, classes, relations, numbers, propositions, etc. They treat mathematics as a mere calculus wherein no interpretation is given or can be given. However, abstract entities are impossible to avoid for some scientific contexts. The theory of meaning and truth is the problem of abstract entities in relation to semantics1. Semanticists claim that certain expressions designate certain entities, including abstract entities2. This violates the basic principles of empiricism and leads back to a metaphysical ontology3 of the platonic kind. Carnap rejects the idea that the use of such language embraces Platonic ontology, but is rather compatible with empiricism and scientific thinking. II. Linguistic Frameworks4 Carnap believes that for someone to speak of a new kind of entities in his language, he must construct a linguistic framework, a system of new ways of speaking and is subject to new rules. To understand these entities, we must recognize the two fundamental  questions concerning the reality of these entities: (1) Internal questions or the questions of existence of the new entities within the framework; and (2) External questions or the questions of existence of the system of entities as a while. Internal questions can be answered by new forms of expressions either by logical or empirical methods. External questions, on the other hand, are in need of a closer examination. The world of things is the simplest kind of entities we deal with everyday language and upon our acceptance of the thing  language with its framework for things, we can raise internal questions like â€Å"Is there a white piece of paper on my desk? †, â€Å"Are unicorns real or imaginary? † and these can be answered by empirical investigation. The results of this investigation can be confirmed or disconfirmed based on explicit rules for the evaluation, which is the main concern of epistemology. The rules of the framework claim that in order for something to be considered real, it must fit into a system at a particular space-time position along with other things  considered as real. The external question of the reality of the thing world is not asked by scientists but by philosophers and is given affirmative answers by realists, and negative answers from subjective idealists. This question is never resolved because it is wrongly framed. To be real in the scientific context means to be an element of the system, hence, this concept cannot be meaningfully applied to the system. Those who question the reality of the thing world are not expecting of a theoretical question, rather, a practical question which  would affect the structure of our language; hence, we must decide whether or not to adapt the forms of expression in the framework. We have accepted the thing language since our earlier years and now we are given the choice whether or not to continue using the thing language or to restrict ourselves to sense-date, to construct an alternative language with new structure and rules, or to refrain from speaking at all. However, Carnap believes that none of the above-mentioned choices is practical. So, he explained that the  acceptance of the thing language does not imply the acceptance of the existence of the thing world, but the acceptance of a certain form of language, accepting rules in order to form, test, or reject statements, and the idea of the reality of the thing world cannot be among these statements because it cannot be formulated in the thing language or in any other theoretical language. Questions regarding the efficiency, fruitfulness and simplicity of the use of the thing language are not yes-no questions but rather questions of degree. But it is wrong to say that â€Å"The fact of the efficiency of the thing language is confirming evidence for the reality of the thing world,† rather, â€Å"This fact makes it advisable to accept the thing language. † Carnap used the example of the system of numbers as an example of a system which is of a logical rather than a factual nature, based on the rules of the new expressions: 1 SEMAN? CS IS THE STUDY OF MEANINGS AND THE RELA? ON OF SIGNS AND SYMBOLS AND WHAT THEY SIGNIFY OR DENOTE. 2 E. G. PROPER? ES AS DESIGNATED BY PREDICATES AND PROPOSI? ONS AS DESIGNATED BY SENTENCES. 3 ONTOLOGY IS THE PHILOSOPHICAL THEORY OF REALITY AND IS THE DOCTRINE OF UNIVERSAL AND NECESSARY CHARACTERIS? CS OF ALL EXISTENCE. 4 A LINGUIS? C FRAMEWORK IS A SET OF LINGUIS? C CONVEN? ONS WHICH DETERMINE THE WAY IN WHICH WE SE#LE EXISTENCE PROBLEMS OF A CERTAIN sort. (1) numerals like â€Å"five† and sentence forms like â€Å"there are five books on the table† (2) the general term â€Å"number† for the new entities, and sentence forms like â€Å"five is a number† (3) expressions of properties of numbers (odd, prime), relations (greater than), and functions (plus), and sentence forms like  Ã¢â‚¬Å"two plus three is five. † (4) numerical variables (m,n,etc) and quantifiers for universal sentences (for every n,†¦. ) and existential sentences (there is an n such that†¦) with the customary deductive rules Empirical investigation is impossible to answer the internal question, â€Å"Is there a prime number greater than a hundred? †, rather it can be answered through logical analysis. He also introduced the system of propositions wherein any declarative sentence can be substituted by a variable. Every sentence that comes in the form â€Å"†¦is a proposition† is considered analytic. This framework included three constructs: (1) â€Å"For every p, either p or not –p† (2) â€Å"There is p such that p is not necessary and not –p is not necessary. † (3) â€Å"There is p such that p is a proposition. † (1) and (2) are both internal assertions of existence while (3) is an implication that there are propositions. Lastly, in the spatio-temporal coordinate system for physics, the new entities are the space-time points. Each point is an ordered quadruple of four real numbers (3 spatial and 1 temporal coordinate). It is not forced on us but is suggested by common observation. The physical state of these space-time points is described through qualitative predicates or through ascribing numbers such as mass, temperature, etc. Moving on to this physical coordinate system requires a decision on how to use language. Carnap argues that the introduction of such forms into our language is a matter of degree, and that the formulation in the form â€Å"real or not† will be inadequate. Many philosophers argue that the affirmation of the reality of the entity of the language shall come prior to the introduction of new language forms, and Carnap strongly disagrees. He claims that a new way of speaking needs not be justified because in the first place, it does not imply any assertion of reality, but only acceptance of a new framework. III. What Does Acceptance of a Kind of Entities Mean? The acceptance of a new kind of entities is represented in the language by the introduction of a framework of new forms of expressions to be used according to a new set of rules. The two essential steps into the introduction of the framework are: (1) the introduction of a general term, a predicate of higher level, for the new kind of entities, permitting us to say of any particular entity that it  belongs to this kind5; and (2) the introduction of variables of the new type. After the formulation of the new forms of language, they can now create internal questions that may either be empirical or logical, and be addressed by true answers that are either factually true or analytic. Carnap debunks the idea that the acceptance of a new framework is an assertion of the reality of the entities. He argues that the question whether or not to accept the new entities and the new linguistic form is a practical question and not a theoretical question. It cannot be judged as true or false because it is not an assertion, rather, it can be judged as being more or less expedient, fruitful and conducive. IV. Abstract Entities in Semantics In semantical meaning analysis, certain expressions are often said to designate (or name or denote or signify) certain extra- linguistic entities. Ex. â€Å"The word ‘red’ designates a property of things. † â€Å"The word ‘five’ designates a number. † Empiricists admit that these are meaningful expressions but reject the belief as they see these as implicitly presupposed by those semantical statements. 5 E. G. â€Å"RED IS A PROPERTY†, â€Å"FIVE IS A NUMBER† This belief is criticized as hypostatization, or treating as names expressions which are not names. Carnap used the example of â€Å"Fido†, his dog, as a name that designates his dog Fido, while red and five are not names and are not supposed to designate anything. To deal with this criticism, Carnap clarifies abstract entities as designata: (a) Five designates a number. This presupposes that our language L contains the forms of expressions which we have called the framework of numbers, in particular, numerical variables and the general term number. If L contains these forms, the following is an analytic statement in L. (b) Five is a number. To make the statement (a) possible, L must contain an expression like designates or is a name of for the semantical relation of designation. If suitable rules for this term are laid down, the following is likewise analytic: (c) Five designates five. Since (a) follows from (c) and (b), (a) is likewise analytic. You must accept these as true statements if you accept the framework of numbers. Carnap acknowledges the need for theoretical justification for internal assertions but argues that it is wrong to demand forsu ch when it comes to acceptance of system of entities. He cites Ernest Nagel who asked for evidence relevant for affirming with warrant that there are such entities as infinitesimals or propositions. He required the evidence to be logical and dialectical. And so Carnap provides an example of this problem of proof: â€Å"Here are three books. † The framework of the sentence allows us to communicate but the question on the ontological reality of the system of numbers continues. One philosopher believes that numbers are real entities so there is no problem in using the  numerical framework for semantical statements. A nominalistic opponent, on the other hand, says there are no numbers. For Carnap, numbers may still be used as meaningful expressions but they are not names and there are no entities designated by them. The term numbers and numerical variables must only be used as abbreviating devices: i. e. to translate them into the nominalistic thing language. He believes that there is no possible evidence relevant for both philosophers. V. Conclusion Carnap’s stand on using semantical methods depended not on the ontological question of existence of abstract entities but onthe qu estion whether or not the rise of abstract linguistic forms is expedient and fruitful for semantical analyses6. This is no yes-or-no question. It dealt with a matter of degree, by their efficiency as instruments, by the . . ratio of the results achieved to the amount and complexity of the efforts required. He challenges the nominalists to offer better arguments than merely appealing to ontological insight; probably a semantical method without any references at all to abstract entities and by simpler means, achieves the same results as other methods. Carnap  pointed out that dogmatic prohibitions are both futile and harmful that looking back to history, traces of slow development rooted to religious, metaphysical, mythological, and other irrational sources. And so by granting freedom to use any form of expression useful to them, those useless forms will sooner or later be eliminated. Carnap ended with a reminder, â€Å"Let us be cautious in making assertions and critical in examining them, but tolerant in permitting linguistic forms. † 6 SEMAN? CAL ANALYSES THAT INCLUDE THE ANALYSIS, INTERPRETA? ON, CLARI+CA? ON OR CONSTRUC? ON OF LANGUAGES OF COMMUNICA? ON, ESPECIALLY languages of science.

Starch Hydrolysis by Amylase | Experiment

Starch Hydrolysis by Amylase | Experiment Polysaccharides are polymers of carbohydrates. They are made up from monosaccharides which are linked together by glycosidic bonds. Polysaccharides are divided into two main groups: structural polysaccharides and polysaccharides which are used as energy sources. Cellulose and chitin are classified as structural polysaccharides. Cellulose is major component of plant cell walls. It yields glucose when completely hydrolyzed. On the other hand Glycogen and starch are the polysaccharides which used as energy source; glycogen is found in animal cells and starch is found in plant cells. Plants use starch to use it to store glucose units for energy. It consists of two types of molecules: the linear and helical amylose and the branched amylopectin. Starch generally contains 20 to 25% amylose and 75 to 80% amylopectin. Amylose forms a colloidal dispersion in hot water whereas amylopectin is completely insoluble. 2.2) Hydrolysis of starch/amylase enzyme: Proteins which catalyze the chemical reactions are called enzymes. Biological catalyzes, enzymes, need specific conditions to be active since they are working in the cells. Temperature must be between 37 and 40 and ph must be neutral. An important metabolic enzyme is amylase that its function is to catalyze the hydrolysis of starch into glucose. Alpha-amylases are found in plants and in animals. Human saliva is rich in amylase, and the pancreas also secretes the enzyme. SUBSTRATE  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ENZYME  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   PRODUCTS starch  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Amylase   ->  Ã‚   maltose + maltose + maltose starchs presence can be identified by using the iodine test. Starch and iodine gives blu-black color together and that helps to identify the presence of starch or iodine. The iodine molecule slips inside of the amylose coil. Iodine is not very soluble in water so the iodine reagent is made by dissolving iodine in water in the presence of potassium iodide. This makes a linear triiodide ion complex and this linear complex can easily slip into the coil of the starch. This forms the color. [3] starch + I2 à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   blue-black color 2.3) Spectrophotometry: A spectrophotometer is used to find the amount of radiant energy absorbed or transmitted by molecules in a solution as a function of wavelength. The wavelength which a certain molecule can absorb energy is different and therefore it can be used to determine the concentration of a specific type of solution. By comparing the amount of light that is absorbed by the sample with known concentration a calibration curve can be plotted and by using it concentration of the unknown sample can be determined. [5] 3) EQUIPMENT AND CHEMICALS 3.1) equipments: Beaker Laboratory scale Weighing dish Spatulas Tubes Tube rack Heater Water bath Plastic cuvettes Pipettes Dropper pH meter 3.2) chemicals: Distilled Water HCl NaCl KH2PO4 Na2HPO4 Starch solution Human salivary Iodine reagent 4) PROCEDURE 4.1) preparation of starch solution and enzyme solution: 20 g of potato starch was mixed with approximately 50 ml cold water. This mixture was then added to 900 ml of boiling water. Mixture was mixed well and it was cooled to room temperature and the total volume was raised to 1 ml by adding sufficient amount of water. Presence of the starch in the solution was tested by putting one drop from the mixture to glass plate and adding one drop of iodine reagent to it. Blue color means starch is present. Saliva sample was taken into tube and diluted with 9 ml water then, 60 ml of 0.5% NaCl was added. 4.2) Effect of the pH: 0.1 M KH2PO4 with pH 5, 6, 7 and Na2HPO4 with pH 8, 9 solutions were prepared as buffers, each buffer was prepared 20 ml only the buffer with 7 pH was prepared 100 ml. 5 test tubes were labeled and to each of them 5ml of the starch solution was put and to each test tube solution with different pH was added. 1 ml of the salivary enzyme solution was added to the tubes and it was mixed by shaking. it was waited for 10 minutes so that the hydrolysis reaction can proceed. 5 ml of HCl solution was added to 5 different tubes and from each of the previous tubes with the starch solution 0.5 ml was taken and added to tubes with HCl. 5 tubes were prepared again for 5 ml of iodine solution this time. From the tubes with HCl 0.5 ml was taken and added to the tubes with iodine. Absorbance values were measured by using spectrophotometer. 4.3) Effect of temperature: Water baths with 30  °C, 50  °C, 70  °C and 90  °C were prepared in beakers. Buffer solution with pH 7 was added to 5 tubes and 5 ml of starch solution was added to these tubes. All of these tubes were put in different water bath with different temperatures and they were waited in the bath until the temperatures reached the equilibrium. 1 ml of salivary enzyme was added to each tube. After 10 minutes the steps 4-7 in the effect of pH procedure were repeated. 5) DISCUSSION In this experiment our purpose was to hydrolyze starch with amylase enzyme and observe the effect of pH and temperature on this reaction. Before observing the pH and temperature effect first we prepared the solutions that we were going to use in the experiment. First we prepared the starch solution by mixing it first with cold water and then adding it into boiling water. We aimed to get the starch suspension form immediately and without any lumps by this procedure. In the first part of the experiment we observed the pH effect. To do that first we needed to prepare the buffer solutions with different ph values ranging between 5 and 9. We used two different solutions because of the buffering capacity of these two solutions. We made the arrangement of the pH by using HCl and NaOH. To decrease the pH we added HCl and to increase we added NaOH, we detected the pH by using pH meter. Each buffer with different pH values were mixed with starch solution and then salivary solution was added. W hich is the amylase enzyme and since its from the saliva it hydrolyzes amylose. After waiting for 10 minutes to reaction proceed we needed to stop the reaction, we did it by adding HCl. Then we added iodine solution to detect whether reaction took place or not since if enzyme functions starch in the solution will be hydrolyzed and this will lead to have light color of the solution; absorbance will be low. Since our body is in neutral pH we expect to have light colored solution at pH 7 and dark color at pH 5, 8 and 9. The same logic is valid for the temperature effect. The enzyme wont work in higher temperature values that can denature it like 90, 70 and maybe 50. Proteins absorbance values are expected to increase as the protein denaturizes. This can be explained by the surface of reflection of the light is increased. Denaturized form of protein has higher possibility to be interacted with the light from the spectrophotometer and thus absorbance will increase. Theoretically we would expect to have both absorbance vs. pH and absorbance vs. temperature graphs to have a min. point where we can say that is the point absorbance is in the min. point at that pH or temperature thus enzyme functions best at that point. In our graphs from the experiment we can observe these min values at approximately expected values. When we look at the temperature graph we see that absorbance is min at around 50 C. normally we would expect that proteins denaturize at that temperature, since human body is 37 °C min absorbance at 40 °C would be the correct result. This error might be because of that we didnt measured our test tubes temperatures after we put them in water bath, So maybe what we refer to as 50 °C in the data table is actually less than that value.

Motif of Blood in Shakespeares Macbeth :: GCSE English Literature Coursework

Motif of Blood in Macbeth Shakespeare In William Shakespeare’s Macbeth, the motif of blood plays an important factor in the framework of the theme.   A motif is a methodical approach to uncover the true meaning of the play.   Macbeth, the main character in the play, thinks he can unjustly advance to the title of king without any variation of his honest self.   The blood on Macbeth’s hands illustrates the guilt he must carry after plotting against King Duncan and yearning for his crown.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Shakespeare used the image of blood to portray the central idea of Macbeth, King Duncan’s murder.   The crime is foreshadowed in the second scene of the first act.   The king shouts, â€Å" What bloody man is that?† (I,ii,1)   He is referring to a soldier coming in from battle.   The soldier then explains to King Duncan of Macbeth’s heroics in battle.   One assumes that Macbeth is bloody just like the soldier.   The soldier describes Macbeth in action â€Å"Disdaining Fortune, with his brandished steel, / Which smoked with bloody execution.† (I,ii,17-18)   This line connects Macbeth with killing, and hints at the future.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The evil deed of murdering the king becomes too much of a burden on the Macbeths.   The blood represents their crime, and they can not escape the sin of their actions.   Macbeth realizes that in time he would get what he deserves.   Since he can not ride himself of his guilt by washing the blood away, his fate may have been sealed.   They   try to use water for vindication, but Macbeth says that all the water in the ocean could not cleanse his hands.   He imagines the blood from the murder staining the ocean red.   Lady   Macbeth differs from her husband in this aspect.   She believes her conscience would be cleansed at the time her hands are physically cleaned.   She tells her husband to have the same beliefs as she or he would be driven to insanity.   Ironically, Lady Macbeth is the one that is driven to the brink of lunacy as she commits suicide at the end of the tragedy.     The image and scent of blood symbolizes the unending guilt of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth.   The blood on their hands represents the inability to annul the murder from their memories.   While sleepwalking, Lady Macbeth was aggravated with own hands.   She was seen muttering, â€Å"Out damned spot! Out, I say!† (V,I,39)   This proves that her evil deed in still on her conscience.

Feminist Theology :: essays research papers

3Write what you know, the pundits say, and I agree, we are conditioned to take the road less traveled by with only the different drummer to keep us company. As a student, I often find myself stumbling around in the theological woods, feeling lost, losing hope and ending up with mud everywhere, but especially on my face. However, the journey, while it lasts, is more interesting than the interstate highway of common knowledge; it certainly has a way of keeping complacency at bay. For me, that seed has often been something theological. I also often find myself playing the ‘devils advocate’ asking, â€Å"What does God look like to those who belong to the rigid social order of the orthodox church, look like in the twentieth-first century?† When modern feminist theologians look at the text of the scriptures, they are quick to point out neglected aspects of the Word and are quick to challenge the "patriarchal" worldviews and assumptions that many consider to b e biblical, but may indeed only be cultural. Evangelical feminists who uphold the integrity of the biblical text as the Word of God have done much to cause the Church to reexamine its views on the role of women in the Church. The challenge has come not from social movements but from the biblical texts themselves. It is essential that we as students look beyond the hermeneutical value, to that which is ingrained in the text not because of truth but rather because of tradition. Professor Trible's research on Adam and Eve notes that the Fall created an inequality in the family relationship that had not existed before. And if Christ has become a cure for us (Galatians 3:13), that curse of inequality is undone in Him as well as in the text in which she refers our attention. Feminist theologians have also recovered the neglected feminine references to God in scripture (noting: the word for Spirit, Ruach, in Hebrew, is feminine) and pointed out the roles of women in the Bible as deacons, co-laborers with Paul in ministry, judges of the nation (Deborah), and possibly even apostles (Junia of Romans 16:7). There are, of course, other things going on in Professor Trible’s writing, but the subtext of theologic al issues gives each story its texture as the abstract ideas intertwine with the actual plot. If I write about nomadic Arabs in 1919 Palestine and describe the tents and daily tea ritual, how can I fail to bring in the Qur'an?